Germany
Germany (and Austria-Hungary), in line with their tradition, widely used a lettering system to designate the cities, where jewelry items were made, the artisans-manufacturers who applied their marks as if to guarantee metal quality, and the year hallmark. However, as distinguished from the British system, these hallmarks did not always comply with the established procedure and the assay standard (800/1000) of silver, which existed more in theory and was rarely met in actual production. It was not without reason that the famous Russian “levok”, the name used for the 62-grade silver, came from the Austria-Hungary lineage and was coined by European merchants exclusively for trade transactions with the countries of the North Africa and Turkey.
Silver hallmarking in Germany was mentioned for the first time in 1289. However, only in 1548 the emperor decree officially ruled that all silver articles weighing more than four lots after setting their assay grade must be stamped with the artisan’s hallmark or with the hallmark of the city magistrate or that of the local province ruler, i.e. the prince elector.
Over one hundred years later, in 1667, the hallmarking procedure was settled in its final pattern taking the shape of the so-called “Cologne Mark” for the assay standard, which existed for more than two hundred years. The Cologne Mark was adopted in Germany to calculate the assay content. It was equal to 16 lots or 96 zolotniks and since 1 lot = 6 zolotniks and 1 zolotnik = 1/96 pounds, or 4.26 grams, the assay grade fluctuated within .800.
Nowadays, Germany is following the Law of 1888 with amendments and additions as of 24.03.1934 (BGBL. S. 240), 24.05.1968 (BGBL. S. 528), 02.03.1974 (BGBL. S. 590), 12.03.1976 (BGBL. S. 513) и 10.11.2001 (BGBL. S. 2997). In 1888, all the German hallmarks were officially standardized. From that time on, all the items made of gold or silver bear only the following hallmarks:
1. Maker’s or company’s hallmark.
2. Assay standard hallmark designated only in numbers, as for instance 800.
3. The gold hallmark contains the image of a sun circle, while the silver hallmark contains the image of a horned moon turned to the right and that of the emperor’s crown, which served as confirmation of the 800/1000 assay standard.
At present, gold and silver articles in commercial circulation must have one obligatory hallmark (see http://www.bv-schmuck-uhren.de for the rules). The specification data in the hallmark must point only to the metal mass content. The hallmark must describe the entire article, although it allows a deviation of 5/1000 for gold and 8/1000 for silver in its different parts. Imported gold and silver items bearing no hallmarks must be offered for sale only after their hallmarking. The seller is responsible for correctness of hallmarks. If hallmarking was done inside the country, both the seller and the hallmark author will be liable.
Some German exceptions to these rules may be of interest. Thus, the hallmark cannot be affixed on gold and silver articles filled with other metals. This is also true for gold and silver used as fillers in items made of other metals. The hallmarks are stamped on all metal elements of composite items, excluding:
1. metals used for decorating (adorning) articles;
2. elements used as mechanical devices;
3. elements used to fix articles without metal joints.
Paragraph 9 of the Law describes the following intentional and inadvertent violations in jewelry commerce:
1. gold and silver articles bearing no hallmarks;
2. gold and silver articles bearing unauthentic hallmarks;
3. gold and silver imitation articles bearing unlawful hallmarks;
4. articles bearing overstated hallmarks.
Notes: Regulations No. 3 and 4 of Paragraph 1 are not valid for silver-coated sets of tools and table ware. Violations may be punished by a fine of up to 5 000 euros. The violation items may be confiscated. The fines are imposed in accordance with Paragraph 27 of the Criminal Code.
It is amusing that the German Law does not deal with items and decorations made of platinum and palladium. In this case hallmarking is non-mandatory and voluntary. For example, instead of the 750 grade it is permitted to set assay grades of 749 or 751.
Italy
The break-up of the Roman Empire into multitudes of free cities, countries and semi-independent dominions excluded the possibility to introduce a unified system of hallmarking articles made of precious metals. In everyday life, people used government hallmarks or stamps of jewellery artisans’ fellowships (guilds). There was a strict state hallmarking system in the Venetian Republic, which included Venice proper, the cities of Verona, Bergamo and some part of Istria and Dalmatia; the fall of the Republic in 1797 put an end to this system.
In 1810, by Napoleon’s decree on all the territory of the Italian Empire there was introduced a state system of assay supervision tailored to the French model. Assay Offices were set up in five cities: Milan, Venice, Ancona, Verona and Brestia.
After the defeat of Napoleon in 1815, his acquisitions in Italy were divided. On the territory of the Kingdom of Lombardy and Venice, which was occupied by Austria, the French hallmarking system including Assay Offices in Milan and Venice stayed effective up to 1866. The independent territories of Modena and Parma in 1818-1872 had their own original systems.
After the unification of Italy into a single state, the Law adopted on May 2, 1872 introduced a liberal hallmarking system: jewellery production was permitted within the frames of one’s free initiative and manufacturers were responsible to control the purity and quality of jewellery alloys.
This law in its basic concepts is effective up to now. Naturally, it was amended and supplemented. Thus, at some time there were introduced the purity standards of 960, 900 and 800. This law remained liberal even in the period of fascist dictatorship.
In 1922, as it is known, Mussolini came to power. In 1925, he formed a single-party fascist government. The fascists organized a centralized system of state monopoly capitalism. From 1927, they started to establish the so-called corporative state aimed at “cooperation between classes” in society. The most important role in the country was played by monopolistic amalgamations headed by the so-called Institute for Industrial Reconstruction (IRI) established in 1933. This type of industrial organization was very close to the Soviet model, wasn’t it? May it be that the success of Stalin fashioned industrialization impressed the passionate duce so much that staying in his soul Hitlerite he preferred to fill his purse at the expense of Stalin’s ideas?
However, in terms of jewellery industry Mussolini stood by the liberal German hallmarking system. The law revised on February 1934 only standardized the shape and content of the hallmark. Hallmarking remained the prerogative of manufacturers and importers. It was allowed to assay and hallmark articles at the Assay Laboratories in case of disputes or for testing some part of articles. The role of the state was to make manufacturer hallmarks at the Mint.
Later there were adopted Supplements as of January 1968 (Act 46), May 1999, January 2000 (Decree 251) and May 2002 (Decree 150).
The Hallmarking Regulations according with Decree 150 of 2002 are laid out at http://www.sagoritalia.it/legislazioneitaliana.htm . This is probably the most detailed and scrupulous legislative act in the world on hallmarking problems. It contains about 500 articles and a whole array of notes! Let us name just some of its sections: 1) Terms and Definitions; 2) Precious Metals and Their Legal Hallmarks; 3) Manufacturer and Assay Hallmarks; 4) Registration Procedure for Owners of Manufacturer Hallmarks; 5) Historic Manufacturer Hallmarks and Facultative Stamps; 6) Coated, Knurled and Electroplated Articles; 7) Responsibility of Businessmen before the Chamber of Commerce; 8) Certification System; 9) Sanctions.
Thus, jewellery assaying and hallmarking are entirely entrusted to the manufacturers who are registered with the Chamber of Commerce and received manufacturer hallmarks at the Mint. In Italy, there are two independent laboratories of precious metals – the Laboratory of Precious Metals in the Province of Arezzo (LABORATORIO METALLI PREZIOSI S.A.G.OR) and the Laboratory of Precious Metals in the Province of Vecenza (LABORATORIO METALLI PREZIOSI). They are accredited under the National System of Accreditation for Laboratories Assaying Precious Metals (Norma UNI EN ISO 11426; UNI EN ISO 11427 ). The task of non-government assay laboratories is to keep the market under close analytic supervision.
Italy is the largest gold jewellery producer. Every year it processes approximately 400 tons of gold. By 60%, this is 18 K. gold and by 20% - 14 K. alloys. Italians also process 1 400 tons of silver and 30-35 tons of platinum. They export up to 70% of their products to the majority of countries. The industry accounts for about 10 000 firms and 60 000 workers and employees. There are only 400 wholesale companies there. Since there is no gold mining industry in Italy, factories are using bank ingots in their work. Local banks give them to the factories under the deferred payment terms. Such a system together with the tax laws permits the manufacturers not to pay for metal when they buy it, which is a “gimmick” of the Italian jewellery competitiveness.
Japan
The Japanese Government Inspection Office was active in this country up to 1998, but it was for testing the pearl quality, the main national treasure. In 1999, due to reorganization this government agency was cancelled. However, the function of testing pearls, the need in which was evident and strong, passed to the Cultured Pearl Quality Inspection, a non-government agency closely connected with the Japan Pearl Exporters' Association (JPEA), a public organization. Pearls are evaluated by six aspects (pearl layer thickness, brilliance and purity, surface perfection, pearl chips and defects, additional processing).
As for jewellery alloys based on precious metals, Japan has never practiced any government-controlled system for testing, assaying and hallmarking jewellery items. Joining various international quality standards, Japan accepts the gold, silver and platinum standards of the International Standards Organization (ISO). Thus, it has approved the following standards:
Gold/000 917, 835, 750, 625, 585, 500, 417, 375
Silber/000 950, 925, 900, 800
Platin/000 950, 900, 850
In practice, the Japanese jewellers are guided only by the Product Liability Law (it would be more correct to translate it as the Suppliers Liability Law) protecting the rights of consumers. Government controlled hallmarking is not even discussed in Japan.
